Cultures > Seleucid Empire

Seleucid Empire

Background

The Seleucid Empire was born out of the massive empire of Alexander III the Great upon his death in Babylon in 323 BCE. Upon his death he left no viable male successors so his generals and officers began fighting among themselves in the Wars of the Diadochi over who should control the vast empire. After several early conflicts and incidents, the Seleucid Empire was firmly established in 312 BCE after the Partition of Babylon and left Seleucus I Nicator in control over Babylonia and the massive eastern portion of Alexanders Empire, the former Achaemenid Empire. He quickly moved to campaign much like Alexander had previously in order to reinforce his rule over the territory.

The Seleucid Dynasty would rule from 312 BCE to 63 BCE and would include all of Persia, Mesopotamia, the Levant and parts of India. The Seleucid Empire is important in bringing Greek culture to the areas it controlled, especially through the urban elite. The Seleucid Empire would later be defeated by the Roman Republic and Parthian Empire, ending the civilization right around the time when the common era begins. Much of the Seleucid Empire would later become part of the Byzantine Empire that formed in the wake of the collapse of the Roman Empire.

Origins

The Seleucid Empire was born out of Alexander the Great's mighty conquest through the known world. When Alexander had campaigned throughout Asia he founded cities along the way with many of his veterans and the indigenous populations. Through immigration these cities grew to become quite large in ancient times. After Alexander's death in 323 BCE his generals and officers all fought over who should govern the vast empire. During a series of wars and conflicts known as a Wars of the Diadochi, the Seleucid Empire was born out of the eastern portion the empire.

During the second division of Alexander's empire in 321 BCE, Seleucus I Nicator was given the satrapy of Babylon and through a series of engagements he established control over the entire eastern portion of Alexander's empire. In order to maintain control over the vast territory he had to campaign much like Alexander did to quell local tribal revolts. Seleucus ruled the territory briefly before he was forced to flee Babylon to the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt when Antigonus I Monophthalmus invaded in 315 BCE. It was there that he and Ptolemy I plotted to fight Antigonus and take back the territory Seleucus lost. During the Battle of Gaza (305 BCE), the combined forces of Seleucus and Ptolemy emerged victorious over Antigonus. This allowed Seleucus to retake Babylon and reclaim the rest of Babylonia. During the following Battle of Ipsus, Seleucus was able to take over the rest of the eastern portion of Alexander's empire.

Having later defeated both Lysimachus and Demetrius I Poliorcetes for control over his empire, finally Seleucus's rule was cemented. Yet before he could enjoy his new empire, Seleucus was murdered in 281 BCE by the eldest son of Ptolemy while he was on his way to claim his new territories. While his successors were able to maintain control over his empire, there was some political instability that eventually saw the slow disintegration of the empire.

Throughout the reign of Antiochus I, Antiochus II Theos, Seleucus II Callincus and Seleucus III Caraunus, there was rebellions within the regions of Bythinia, Pergammum, Bactria and Parthia that would continue until the end of the empire.

India

Internal Strife

It is this disorganized and problematic empire that the eighteen year-old Antiochos III inherited in 223 BCE. Over the next 25 years he subdued most of the rebellious states in a great tour de force: He made his anabasis (difficult retreat) in the east successfully fighting Parthians and Bactrians, made a profitable treaty with the Indian ruler Sophagasenos and confirmed his superiority on rebellious subjects. He also made an expedition against the Gerrhaeans of the East Arabian coast in 204 BCE and defeated the Ptolemies twice which allowed him to take control of the highly valued Koile Syria near 198 BCE.

Regrettably, he also led a war against Rome in the wake of his expansion in Anatolia, and despite the wise advice of the Carthaginian Hannibal Barca, which he decided not to follow, he was defeated at the Battle of Magnesia ad Sipylum in 190 BCE. The consequences of the disastrous peace treaty which followed led the kingdom into ruin, and Antiochos III died in 187 BCE during a campaign in the East.

Roman Republic

Antiochos III's death marked the end of the Seleucid Empire as a great power. The kingdom fell once more into dynastic struggles, and the eastern provinces were gradually lost due to rebellions and Parthian expansion. Much worse was the Roman interference in the Empire, largely influencing the dynastic quarrels and foreign policy, such as in 168 BCE when the Romans forced Antiochos IV to withdraw from the only successful Seleucid campaign in Egypt. The wild intrigues which characterized the last decades of the Seleucid Empire were ended by the invasion of the Armenian king Tigranes II in 83 BCE. Even if after Tigranes some rulers of Syria claimed to be Seleucid kings, they were no more than Roman vassals.

Collapse & Legacy

The Seleucid legacy in Asia was strong, because Hellenism was established in Asia during two centuries of Seleucid rule. The method of dating years in Asia, for example, was called the Seleucid Era, beginning at the return of Seleucos I to Babylon in 311 BCE, which was continued to be used as late as the 6th century CE. In fact, the Seleucid legacy lasted throughout Roman, Parthian and Sassanid dominion until the Arabian invasions of the 7th century CE introduced Islam.

Seleucid Dynasty

Here's a comprehensive table of the Seleucid dynasty, including their years of reign, consorts, successors, predecessors, and contributions:

Monarch	Years of Reign	Consorts	Successor	Predecessor	Contribution
Seleucus I Nicator	305–281 BC	Apama	Antiochus I	None (Founder)	Founded the Seleucid Empire, expanded territories, established cities like Antioch and Seleucia
Antiochus I Soter	281–261 BC	Stratonice of Syria	Antiochus II	Seleucus I	Consolidated the empire, faced threats from neighboring powers
Antiochus II Theos	261–246 BC	Laodice, Berenice	Seleucus II	Antiochus I	Fought the Third Syrian War, contributed to the spread of Hellenistic culture
Seleucus II Callinicus	246–225 BC	Laodice II	Seleucus III, Antiochus III	Antiochus II	Faced internal conflicts and wars with Ptolemaic Egypt
Seleucus III Ceraunus	225–223 BC	Unknown	Antiochus III	Seleucus II	Brief reign marked by military campaigns in Asia Minor
Antiochus III the Great	223–187 BC	Laodice III, Euboea, etc.	Seleucus IV	Seleucus III	Expanded the empire to its greatest extent, clashed with Rome, issued the Treaty of Apamea
Seleucus IV Philopator	187–175 BC	Laodice IV	Antiochus IV	Antiochus III	Maintained the empire, faced economic difficulties
Antiochus IV Epiphanes	175–164 BC	Laodice IV	Antiochus V, Demetrius I	Seleucus IV	Known for his conflict with the Maccabees, attempted Hellenization of the Jews
Antiochus V Eupator	164–161 BC	Unknown	Demetrius I	Antiochus IV	Child king, ruled under the regency of Lysias
Demetrius I Soter	161–150 BC	Apama	Alexander I Balas	Antiochus V	Restored stability, struggled against rival claimants
Alexander I Balas	150–145 BC	Cleopatra Thea	Demetrius II	Demetrius I	Pretender to the throne, initially supported by Ptolemaic Egypt
Demetrius II Nicator	145–139 BC, 129–126 BC	Cleopatra Thea	Antiochus VII, Seleucus V	Alexander I, Antiochus VI	Captured by the Parthians, restored briefly before being overthrown
Antiochus VI Dionysus	145–142 BC	None	Tryphon	Alexander I	Child king, controlled by the usurper Diodotus Tryphon
Diodotus Tryphon	142–138 BC	None	Antiochus VII	Antiochus VI	Usurped the throne, controlled parts of the empire
Antiochus VII Sidetes	138–129 BC	Cleopatra Thea	Demetrius II	Diodotus Tryphon	Attempted to restore the empire, died fighting the Parthians
Cleopatra Thea	126–121 BC	Demetrius II, Antiochus VII	Seleucus V, Antiochus VIII	Demetrius II, Antiochus VII	Co-ruled with her sons, significant influence during a turbulent period
Seleucus V Philometor	126–125 BC	Unknown	Antiochus VIII	Cleopatra Thea	Brief reign, murdered by his mother Cleopatra Thea
Antiochus VIII Grypus	125–96 BC	Tryphaena	Antiochus IX	Cleopatra Thea	Struggled with his half-brother Antiochus IX for control of the empire
Antiochus IX Cyzicenus	114–95 BC	Cleopatra IV, Cleopatra Selene	Seleucus VI	Cleopatra Thea	Fought against Antiochus VIII, eventually killed in the conflict
Seleucus VI Epiphanes	96–95 BC	Unknown	Antiochus X	Antiochus VIII	Brief reign, killed during conflict with Antiochus IX’s sons
Antiochus X Eusebes	95–92 BC	Cleopatra Selene	Antiochus XI, Philip I	Seleucus VI	Maintained some control, but the empire was fracturing
Antiochus XI Epiphanes	94–93 BC	Unknown	Philip I, Demetrius III	Antiochus X	Brief reign, killed in battle
Philip I Philadelphus	95–83 BC	Unknown	Tigranes II (Armenia)	Antiochus IX	Co-ruled with his brother Demetrius III, faced Armenian invasion
Demetrius III Eucaerus	94–87 BC	Unknown	Philip I, Antiochus XII	Antiochus VIII	Fought against his brother Philip I and Parthians
Antiochus XII Dionysus	87–84 BC	Unknown	None (Empire fragmented)	Demetrius III	Last significant Seleucid ruler, killed in battle, end of Seleucid power in Syria
Philip II Philoromaeus	65–64 BC	Unknown	None (Roman annexation)	None (Seleucid pretender)	Last Seleucid claimant, brief and nominal rule before the Roman annexation of Syria

Settlements of Seleucid Empire

Here's a comprehensive table of known ancient settlements in the Seleucid Empire, including their latitude, longitude, year founded, estimated population, modern location, and satrapy:

Ancient Settlement	Latitude	Longitude	Year Founded	Estimated Population (Ancient)	Modern Location	Satrapy
Seleucia on the Tigris	33.1000	44.5700	c. 305 BC	100,000 - 600,000	Near Baghdad, Iraq	Babylonia
Antioch	36.2028	36.1606	c. 300 BC	200,000 - 500,000	Antakya, Turkey	Syria
Apamea	35.4167	36.3833	c. 300 BC	50,000 - 100,000	Qalaat al-Madiq, Syria	Syria
Laodicea on the Sea	35.5311	35.7825	c. 300 BC	50,000 - 100,000	Latakia, Syria	Syria
Dura-Europos	34.7453	40.7275	c. 303 BC	10,000 - 20,000	Near Salhiyah, Syria	Mesopotamia
Ecbatana	34.7960	48.5150	c. 678 BC	100,000 - 300,000	Hamadan, Iran	Media
Hecatompylos	36.2000	55.0333	c. 300 BC	10,000 - 20,000	Near Damghan, Iran	Parthia
Susa	32.1892	48.2572	c. 4200 BC	50,000 - 100,000	Shush, Iran	Susiana
Seleucia Pieria	36.0981	35.9183	c. 300 BC	10,000 - 20,000	Samandağ, Turkey	Syria
Pergamum	39.1200	27.1800	c. 281 BC	100,000 - 200,000	Bergama, Turkey	Hellespontine Phrygia
Sardis	38.4886	28.0405	c. 13th century BC	50,000 - 100,000	Sart, Turkey	Lydia
Nisa	37.9500	58.3833	c. 300 BC	10,000 - 20,000	Near Ashgabat, Turkmenistan	Parthia
Edessa	37.1489	38.7910	c. 303 BC	20,000 - 50,000	Şanlıurfa, Turkey	Osroene
Zeugma	37.0386	37.8669	c. 300 BC	20,000 - 30,000	Belkıs, Turkey	Commagene
Nisibis	37.0750	41.2167	c. 9th century BC	15,000 - 30,000	Nusaybin, Turkey	Mesopotamia
Tyre	33.2706	35.2033	c. 2750 BC	50,000 - 100,000	Tyre, Lebanon	Phoenicia
Palmyra	34.5591	38.2752	c. 2nd millennium BC	10,000 - 20,000	Tadmur, Syria	Syria
Babylon	32.5364	44.4200	c. 2300 BC	200,000 - 500,000	Near Hillah, Iraq	Babylonia
Damascus	33.5138	36.2765	c. 3rd millennium BC	50,000 - 100,000	Damascus, Syria	Syria
Arsinoe	35.0167	32.7167	c. 3rd century BC	5,000 - 10,000	Famagusta, Cyprus	Cyprus
Ctesiphon	33.0946	44.5760	c. 120 BC	20,000 - 50,000	Near Baghdad, Iraq	Babylonia
Gazaca	37.6453	45.0709	c. 3rd century BC	5,000 - 10,000	Takht-e Soleyman, Iran	Media
Antiochia in Susiana	31.8242	48.9171	c. 300 BC	10,000 - 20,000	Near Ahvaz, Iran	Susiana