Bibliography > Primary Sources
Primary Sources
Background
Much of what we know about the campaign of Alexander the Great is known through the primary sources written down several decades or hundreds of years later by the Romans who were able to access primary sources and copy them for reference.
The Five Main Sources on Alexander the Great
Arrian of Nicopedia
Works:
- Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander)
- Indica
Details:Arrian of Nicomedia, a Greek historian writing in the 2nd century AD, is considered one of the best sources on Alexander's campaigns. His Anabasis Alexandri is largely based on the accounts of Ptolemy, Aristobulus, and Nearchus. Arrian’s work is notable for its military focus and critical approach to sources. He often cites and critiques his sources by name, and he avoids delving into Alexander’s private life, acknowledging the king's errors but contextualizing them within his youth and fortune.
"That Alexander should have committed errors in conduct from impetuosity or from wrath, and that he should have been induced to comport himself like the Persian monarchs to an immoderate degree, I do not think remarkable if we fairly consider both his youth and his uninterrupted career of good fortune. I do not think that even his tracing his origin to a god was a great error on Alexander's part if it was not perhaps merely a device to induce his subjects to show him reverence" (Arrian 7b 29).
Indica mainly describes the voyage of Alexander's officer Nearchus from the Indus to the Persian Gulf following Alexander's conquest of much of the Indus Valley.
Plutarch
Works:
- Life of Alexander (see Parallel Lives)
- On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great (see Moralia)
Details:Plutarch of Chaeronea, writing in the second century, bases his works largely on Aristobulus and Cleitarchus. His Life of Alexander devotes significant space to Alexander's ambition and drive, exploring how much of it was evident in his youth. Plutarch draws extensively on the work of Lysippus, Alexander's favorite sculptor, providing what is likely the fullest and most accurate description of Alexander’s physical appearance.
Diodorus
Work:
- Bibliotheca historica (Library of World History)
Details:Written by the Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC, Bibliotheca historica is the oldest surviving Greek source on Alexander. Book 17 of this work details Alexander’s conquests and relies almost entirely on the accounts of Cleitarchus and Hieronymus of Cardia. Diodorus viewed Alexander, like Caesar, as a pivotal historical figure and chronological marker.
Curtius
Work:
- Historiae Alexandri Magni (Histories of Alexander the Great)
Details:Quintus Curtius Rufus, a Roman historian from the 1st century AD, wrote a ten-book biography of Alexander, of which the last eight survive. His work is based largely on Cleitarchus, mediated through Timagenes, with some material from Ptolemy. Curtius’ narrative focuses on character rather than strict historical accuracy, revealing gaps in his knowledge of geography, chronology, and military technique. Jona Lendering notes that Curtius' true subject might have been the tyranny of Tiberius and Caligula, using Alexander’s story as a vehicle.
Justin
Work:
- The Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus
Details:Justin’s work is a highly compressed version of Pompeius Trogus' earlier history. Justin’s selections are guided by a desire to make moralistic points rather than historical accuracy. This epitome simplifies and condenses Trogus' broader historical narrative.
These sources collectively provide a comprehensive, though varied, view of Alexander the Great’s life and conquests, each contributing unique perspectives and details to the historical tapestry of his legacy.
Sources
Quintus Curtius Rufus: Life of Alexander the Great
Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander
The Invasion of India by Alexander
